Magdalena And Balthasar Essays (973 words) - Steven Ozment

Magdalena And Balthasar The letters of Magdalena and Balthasar give us a glimpse into the lives of a merchant couple in 16th century Nuremberg, Germany. Renaissance Nuremberg was a city much like Florence, full of culture and based on a strong merchant economy. The only difference was that while Florence was predominately Catholic, Nurembergs residents were Protestant (Patrouch, 2-13-01). In this city, the plague ended the lives of thousands and this couple was alive to see the suffering it created. This caused two reactions in them. One was that of fear; a fear that they too would die from the plague and so they are both very careful with their health. The second was a vision of a God that could both punish and save them from damnation. In the letters of this book we discover how a Protestant couple in Renaissance Germany dealt with the illness and suffering that their loving God had bestowed upon them. Between 1560 and 1584, Nuremberg lost thousands of its residents to an epidemic that was sweeping Europe. This was the reason for the couples preoccupation with purgative health care methods such as periodic bleedings, salve solutions, and bathing and drinking spring waters such as those of Lucca, Italy. In the introduction of this book, Ozment states that Magdalena and Balthasar are devotees of purgative medicine, in search of effective prophylaxis against the ragging maladies and diseases of their age (Ozment, 14). Due to this fear of sickness and death, Magdalena and Balthsar are fanatics of the medical remedies of the time. Through these letters we can see that religion played a major role in the lives of the couple. As we read in the introduction, they seem to have a love-hate relationship with God, their Afflicter and Redeemer (Ozment, 14). Throughout their letters we will discover the strong beliefs that this couple had in the medicine of their time and the God that they both feared and loved. Magdalena is the one who was exposed most to this deterioration that was occurring in Nuremberg. Numerous times she remorsefully mentioned the news of a lost friend or relative in her letters to Balthasar. Once while Balthasar was in Altdorf Magdalena wrote, I must report to you a death among our friends in every letter I write; I wish it were not so (M. Paumgartner, 113). Even though this is a happy time in their lives because she has just found out that they will have a child, they are not sure whether this is a blessing or a curse, for now there is one more of them at risk. And later we learn that this epidemic did not discriminate the old or young and even little Balthasar dies at the young age of 10. While away in Ausburg, Balthasar receives news that little Balthasar was very ill. Magdalena wrote, I long for you under this cross which God has made us bear by afflicting little Balthasar. She goes on to say, May eternal God add his grace to the medicine, so that little Balthasar will have recovered by the time you return. (M. Paumgartner, 98). This is a perfect example of the vision the couple had of God. Even though He was the merciless God that had bestowed such a horrible sickness on their boy, He was also the all- powerful God that could remove it and restore the health of their only son. This is the love-hate relationship that Ozment mentions in his introduction. The couple loved God and constantly praise him throughout their correspondence but they never fail to recognize that He is the one who has created such suffering for them. In a letter to Balthasar while away in Frankfurt Magdalena writes how little Balthasar definitely has a deformity in his neck. She says that she has just taken him to the doctor and he believes there is nothing that will cure him, the only thing that will help is some salve and she goes on to say, May God help make it work! (M. Paumgartner, 90). Statements like this display to us hope that Magdalena and Balthasar had in both God and medicine. In a letter from Balthasar to Magdalena, he says

Mitosis and cancer essays

Mitosis and cancer essays Mitosis is the process of division that produces two daughter cells that are genetically identical to each other and the parent cell. Cancer is an uncontrolled proliferation of cells dividing. Mitosis ensures that every cell in an organism carries the same chromosomes. Mitosis is how our bodies grow and reproduce damaged cells. The mitosis part in cell reproduction is actually the smallest part of the over all cell cycle. The cell spends most of its time in interphase. In the first stage (G1) it is primarily for cell growth. The second stage (S) is the synthesis phase where the genetic material duplicates. The third stage (G2) it is a prep stage and a check stage for the DNA. Then the last stage would be mitosis, in which the cell would go through prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase until cytokinesis where the cytoplasm divides and you have two daughter cells. Cancer In some cases the rate is fast; in others, slow; but in all cancers the cells never stop dividing. Cancer cells are clones. No matter how many trillions of cells are present in the cancer, they are all descended from a single ancestral cell. A single cell in a tissue suffers a mutation in a gene involved in the cell cycle. This results in giving that cell a slight growth advantage over other dividing cells in the tissue. As that cell develops into a clone, some if its descendants suffer another mutation in another cell-cycle generation. This further messes with the cell cycle of that cell and its descendants. As the rate of mitosis in that clone increases, the chances of further DNA damage increases. Eventually, so many mutations have occurred that the growth of that clone becomes completely unregulated. Thus, the result is uncontrolled cellular mitosis, which leads to full-blown cancer. Sometimes a normal cell can undergo a transformation - it will become cancerous. This transformation can occur due to a variety of factors including expos...

All About Famous Memorials and Monuments of the U.S.

All About Famous Memorials and Monuments of the U.S. How do we remember important events? How can we best honor our dead? Should we pay tribute with realistic sculptures of our heroes? Or, will the monument be more meaningful and profound if we choose abstract forms? Sometimes the horror of events are too unreal to accurately represent. The design of a monument or memorial is often more symbolic than an accurate representation. Powerful Memorials in the U.S. National September 11 Memorial, New York, NYU.S.S. Arizona, Honolulu, HIVietnam Veterans Memorial, Jefferson Memorial, Washington Monument, Lincoln Memorial, and the National WWII Memorial in Washington, D.C.Gateway Arch, St. Louis, MOMount Rushmore National Memorial, SD Often the most powerful memorials - the monuments that stir strong emotion - are surrounded with controversy. The memorials and monuments listed here show various ways architects and designers have chosen to honor heroes, respond to tragedies, or commemorate important events. The memorial is there to provide an experience, Michael Arad has said. That experience, no doubt, involves memory. It is no surprise that the word memorial comes from the Latin word memoria, meaning memory. Architecture is memory. Memorials and monuments tell a story. To Honor and Remember People and Events How many buildings have you lived in? Where did you make your home when you were a child? when you first went to school? first fell in love? Our memories are inextricably tied with place. Events in our lives are permanently entangled with where they happened. Even when all the details may be fuzzy, the sense of place is forever with us. Architecture can be powerful markers of memories, so commanding that we sometimes consciously create memorials to honor and remember people and events. We may make a crude twig cross to commemorate a childhood pet. The carved stone on a family members burial site is built to stand for centuries. Bronze plaques remind a nation of bravery in face of adversity. Concrete tombs can visually present the scope of tragedies. How do we use architecture to express loss and hope for renewal? Does it make sense to spend millions of dollars building September 11 memorials? How we spend our money is an ongoing debate for families, nations, and institutions. The First Monuments and Memorials The earliest creations built by man for purposes other than shelter were spiritual in nature  - monuments to higher powers and memorials to honor the dead. One thinks of the prehistoric Stonehenge in Britain and the Grecian Parthenon built in 432 B.C. for the goddess Athena. The first memorials may have been the great pyramids in Egypt, the tombs of the great kings and pharaohs. Historically, human beings remember events related to war. As tribal conflicts became wars between nation states, the victors have built monuments to their victories. Monuments designed as arches can be traced back to the triumphal arches of Rome, such as the Arch of Titus (A.D. 82) and the  Arch of Constantine (A.D. 315). These Roman arches influenced 19th and 20th century war memorials around the world, including one of the most famous triumphal arches, the 1836 Arc de Triomphe in Paris, France. American War Memorials and Monuments The 1842 Bunker Hill Memorial near Boston, Massachusetts memorializes the American Revolution and the battle that took place on this sacred ground. In the United States, battlegrounds themselves are often considered the memorial. Throughout American history, memorial architecture has been built both locally and nationally. American Civil War: Monuments to Civil War heroes continue to divide the nation. Communities and groups who had erected monuments to Confederate war heroes of the 19th century found these memorials being removed in the 21st century  - remembering a culture of slavery and white supremacy became untolerable to a society struggling with inclusion.  Architecture can stir emotions and controversy. Less controversial is the 1866 Civil War Unknowns Monument, the first Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Arlington Cemetery. It is a mass grave of over 2,000 soldiers, both Union and Confederate, whose bones and bodies were picked up after gruesome battles. The tomb is inscribed in stone: Beneath this stone repose the bones of two thousand one hundred and eleven unknown soldiers gathered after the war from the fields of Bull Run, and the route to the Rappahanock, their remains could not be identified. But their names and deaths are recorded in the archives of their country, and its grateful citizens honor them as of their noble army of martyrs. May they rest in peace! September. A. D. 1866. World War I: A National World War I Memorial called The Weight of Sacrifice officially marks the 100th anniversary of the end of WWI as it is dedicated on November 11, 2018. The memorial design competition was won by the Chicago-based architect Joseph Weishaar and New York City sculptor Sabin Howard. The memorial in Washington, DCs Pershing Park is the first national monument to this war event. The 1926 Liberty Memorial in Kansas City, Missouri had been considered a national memorial because of the number of soldiers who passed through the city on their way to war. The District of Columbia War Memorial in Washington, D.C. is considered a local monument. World War II:  Dedicated in 2004, the National World War II Memorial is located on the National Mall in Washington, D.C. Friedrich St.Florian, the Austrian-born architect, won the competition with his highly symbolic design. Down the road from St.Florians memorial is the iconic Iwo Jima Memorial. Near Arlington National Cemetery, the statue replicates a dynamic photograph depicting an important event in WWII Pacific War history. The 1954 statue, however, is really called the United States Marine Corps War Memorial and is dedicated to all Marines who have given their lives in defense of the United States since 1775. Similarly, the nearby 2006 United States Air Force Memorial  and the 1987 United States Navy Memorial honor those military branches. The horrors of WWII may best be depicted at the U.S.S. Arizona Memorial at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, a 1962 museum built over the hull of a sunken battleship. Keeping the ruins of war has been a popular way to impress memories of war on future generations. In Hiroshima, Japan the Atomic Bomb Dome, the remains of a building from the 1945 atomic bomb attack, is central to the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park. Korean War: The Korean War Veterans Memorial in Washington, D.C. was dedicated July 27, 1995, decades after the 1953 armistice. Unlike other memorials, the Korean War Veterans Memorial honors the nearly six million Americans who served during the three-year conflict and not just the men and women who gave their lives. Vietnam War: The Vietnam Veterans Memorial Wall - the controversial design by architect Maya Lin - was dedicated in 1982 and remains one of the most visited sites in Washington, D.C. One of its most emotional appeals is the reflective nature of the engraved stone, where a viewers image can literally be reflected while reflecting on the names of the dead and missing. A bronze statue of three soldiers was added in 1964 and the  Vietnam Womens Memorial statue was added in 1993. Terrorism: A new type of war for the United States is undeclared, yet the horror of terrorism is everpresent. Michael Arads vision for a National September 11 Memorial in New York City reflects the absence of what once existed - both buildings and people are to be remembered. In Shanksville, Pennsylvania, a 90-foot wind chime called the Tower of Voices houses 40 tonal tubes that sing together as the voices of the 40 passengers and crew of United Flight 93. September 11 memorials often use symbolism to honor place and people. The Tower of Voices in Shanksville, Pennsylvania. Jeff Swensen/Getty Images (cropped) Tomb of the Unknown Soldier The 1921 Tomb of the Unknowns, or the Tomb of the Unknown Soldiers, at Arlington National Cemetery is a simple white marble sarcophagus (coffin) that holds powerful symbolic meaning. Like the walls of the 1922 Lincoln Memorial, the Tomb of the Unknowns is constructed with bright white marble from the Yule Quarry in Colorado. Neoclassical pilasters, wreaths representing the major battles of World War I, and Grecian figures symbolizing Peace, Victory, and Valor decorate the marble panels. One panel is inscribed: HERE RESTS IN HONORED GLORY AN AMERICAN SOLDIER KNOWN BUT TO GOD. Although the Tomb of the Unknowns holds the remains of only a few individuals, the site honors the many unidentified men and women who gave their lives in armed conflict. The Tomb of the Unknowns also underscores Americas commitment to account for all service members who are missing - an idea that gained prominence after the Civil War. Both the Tomb of the Unknowns and the earlier Civil War Unknowns Monument have been the focus of remembrance since the first Decoration Day, now called Memorial Day, when spring flowers are used to decorate the graves of fallen soldiers. Holocaust Memorials Millions of people were killed between 1933 and 1945 in what is known as the Holocaust or Shoah. Remembering the horror of the slaughter is an attempt to never allow its repeat. Two of the best-known memorials are museums by two well-known architects. The Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe in Berlin, Germany, was designed by Peter Eisenman and the Yad Vashem Holocaust History Museum in Jerusalem is by Moshe Safdie. The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, D.C. opened inn 1993 as a living memorial to the Holocaust. In Europe, artist Gunter Demnig has created Stolpersteine or stumbling stones to memorialize the last known addresss of victims. Architect Daniel Libeskind has created a Jewish Museum in Berlin, Germany and the Ohio Holocaust and Liberators Memorial in Columbus, Ohio. For some Holocaust survivors, remembering the horrors has been neither easy nor desireable. The history of the Holocaust Memorial in Miami Beach, Florida has its own story of objection and disapproval - yet the resulting sculpture garden is profound and moving. Monuments and Memorials to Leaders, Groups, and Movements Until the 21st century, United States Presidents have been revered. One thinks of the great heads carved in stone at the Mount Rushmore National Memorial in the Black Hills of South Dakota. The Jefferson Memorial, Washington Monument, and Lincoln Memorial are three of the most well-known architecture destinations created for the public in all of Washington, D.C. In 1997, the Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial was added to the presidential mix in the nations capital. The John Fitzgerald Kennedy Memorial by Pritzker Laureate Philip Johnson is located in Dallas, Texas - the site of the presidential assassination. Consensus is never unanimous for which U.S. Presidents deserve to be remembered. Agreement is even less harmonious for other leaders, groups, and movements. The Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial in Washington, D.C. is a case in point - bickering before and after it was dedicated in 2011. The Civil Right Memorial in Montgomery, Alabama, designed by Maya Lin, was dedicated in 1989 to far less controversy. National memorials and monuments to the plight of disenfranchised Americans  - Native Americans, Black Americans, and LGBT Americans, for example - are few or nonexistant, except for museums. The design of monuments is often modelled after historic architecture of the past. For example, the iconic 1892 Washington Square Arch in New York Citys Greenwich Village looks strikingly similar to the triumphal stone arches built since the Roman Arch of Titus from the year 82. Likewise, the 1910 Pilgrim Monument in Provincetown, Massachusetts was designed specifically after the 14th century Torre Del Mangia in Siena, Italy. Design is not materials, however, as the tower rising on Cape Cod is not Italian brick but made of granite from Maine  - the tallest all-granite structure in the U.S. Monuments to Ideals The St. Louis Gateway Arch is an homage to Westward Expansion. The Statue of Liberty National Monument is a monument to the ideals of freedom and opportunity. Nearby on Roosevelt Island in New York City, the Franklin D. Roosevelt Four Freedoms Park, designed by modernist architect Louis I. Kahn,  is a memorial not only to FDR, but also to his vision of basic human rights. Sometimes we build memorials to remind us of whats important. Why We Need Monuments and Memorials Monuments and memorials ultimately tell stories, the tales important to their human creators. Architecture, including memorials and monuments, is an expressive tool. Design can show prosperity, whimsy, solemnity, or a combination of qualities. But architecture doesnt need to be big and expensive to ensure memory. When we build things, sometimes the purpose is an obvious marker of a life or an event to be remembered. But anything we build can kindle the flames of memory. In the words of John Ruskin (1819-1900): Therefore, when we build, let us think that we build for ever. Let it not be for present delight, nor for present use alone; let it be such work as our descendants will thank us for, and let us think, as we lay stone on stone, that a time is to come when those stones will be held sacred because our hands have touched them, and that men will say as they look upon the labor and wrought substance of them, See! this our fathers did for us. - Section X, The Lamp of Memory, The Seven Lamps of Architecture, 1849 Sources Eva Hagberg, How Architecture Commemorates Tragedy, Metropolis, June 28, 2005, metropolismag.com/uncategorized/how-architecture-commemorates-tragedy/History of the Marine Corps War Memorial, National Park Service, https://www.nps.gov/gwmp/learn/historyculture/usmcwarmemorial.htm David A. Graham. The Stubborn Persistence of Confederate Monuments, The Atlantic, April 26, 2016, https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2016/04/the-stubborn-persistence-of-confederate-monuments/479751/Civil War Unknown Monument, Arlington National Cemetery, arlingtoncemetery.mil/Explore/Monuments-and-Memorials/Civil-War-Unknowns History of the Holocaust Memorial, Holocaust Memorial Miami Beach, https://holocaustmemorialmiamibeach.org/about/history/Quick Facts, Pilgrim Monument, https://www.pilgrim-monument.org/pilgrim-monument/Additional Photo Credits: USS Arizona National Memorial, MPI/Getty Images (cropped); Atomic Bomb Dome, Craig Pershouse/Getty Images; Pilgrim Monument, haveseen/Getty Images; Torr e del Mangia, Nadya85/Getty Images (cropped)

The Cultural Clash of a Wedding between a Catholic Priest and a Female Essay

The Cultural Clash of a Wedding between a Catholic Priest and a Female Buddhist - Essay Example Culture plays an important role in every society especially when it comes to religion and gender roles. This aspect has had a major impact on how various people from cultural backgrounds and different gender go about their duties within the society. Ingram states that some cultures and religious doctrines are to a certain degree non-conforming therefore, a major cultural clash can occur in the event of the interaction of the two religious setups that may profess extreme doctrines (6). This is especially so when it involves the incorporation of gender as each religious doctrine associate men and women with specific gender roles. The main aim of this essay is to discuss two distinct cultures and identify the cultural clash that may arise when a wedding between a female Buddhist and Catholic father take place. Religious and cultural doctrines under the Roman Catholic Church Believed to be the earliest Christian Church, the Catholic Church like any other Christian Church, believes in cre ation and life after death. The church practices a number of doctrines that place women at a certain level within the society. Worshipping I the dioceses and parishes, the Catholic hopefuls, men and women included, partake of the mass and to a certain degree, confine their religious teachings within the Bible. The worshippers believe in trinity and the resurrection of Jesus Christ and they confirm this by baptism and partaking of the Holy Sacrament. Most worshippers believe in religious symbols of Jesus and Mary as a way of connecting to God. When it comes to gender and sexuality issues, the Catholic Church is especially restrictive to women holding positions of power like the papacy and fatherhood. In addition, men who have devoted their lives to Christ ought not to marry (Ingram 22). Religious and cultural doctrines in Buddhism Unlike their Christian counterparts, the Buddhists believe in the Three Jewels, often referred to as the Three Refugees. The Buddha, the Four Noble Truths, and the Four Reminders, talk about human life and the essence of his existence although some of the details contained therein may significantly differ with Christian beliefs (Ingram 24). When it comes to gender roles, there is perception that women ought to be equal to men although there are certain discrepancies. The monks and nuns ordain the nuns while only the monks ordain themselves. According to the Buddhist philosophy, enlightenment of a person can elevate their social status irrespective of their gender, a perception that has infiltrated several Buddhist cultures through western modernization (Ingram 36). The clash between the Roman Catholic and the Buddhist culture Although there are some elements of resemblance between the Buddhist and Catholic belief systems, significant inconsistencies surface across the across the cultural divide of the two cultures. According to Ingram, certain similarities do exist especially pertaining to the exclusive importance accorded to life wit hout due regard to the specific gender. These include the right to life, refraining from sexual misconduct, practice of high morals, and the belief in a supernatural being, which has spiritual reign over all that inhabit the earth (26). However, there are notable differences between the two cultures that may lead to a scenario of a cultural clash, in case circumstances force the two cultures to interact (Ingram 32). The major one being that generally, Buddhists are polytheists while the Christian Catholics are monotheists. While Christians follow one Almighty God, most Buddhists have specific gods for certain incidences of life, for example the god of life, the god of marriage, and the god of the skies. Christians do believe in the good old story of creation of mankind and life after death while to the Buddhists, it is a bit twisted in that they do not regard the story of creation while at the same time ignoring what happens after life on earth as

Assessing the past performance of a security or asset Research Paper

Assessing the past performance of a security or asset - Research Paper Example Secondly, asset turnover is an important reflection of the sales against assets relationship which can be used to demonstrate performance. The other ROE tool is the financial leverage function that highlights the measure of assets against shareholders’ equity. ROE is therefore a fair representation of elements of the balance sheet as well as the income statement since the variables uses in these rations are picked from the two performance reports. To obtain ROE, the three ratios are multiplied to demonstrate the summary of the performance. From such an assessment, it is possible for investors to monitor the performance of the investment in which they have an interest on. Alternatively, another important performance indicator usually applied in economics is the return on assets (ROA). Simpler in calculation than ROE, ROA reflects actual performance that every investment unit has over a particular period. One of the two ways to obtain ROA is multiplication of asset turnover with the profit margin which reflects performance with respect to total return element on assets (Higgins 2001, p37). On the other hand, net income against assets gives the same consideration. Apparently, this tool of performance is also a reflection of variables of the balance sheet as well as the income statement which account for performance over a specific period. Further asset turnover analyses through a number of control ratios enables consideration of specific asset types for clearer asset performance. Some of these control ratios include; inventory turnover, fixed asset turnover, collection period, days’ sales in cash and payables period. Liquidity ratios also assist in determination of performance which determines the management’s application of returns in furthering business and investment. In terms of operating capital requires a certain sufficiency level

Sociology Asian Family Essay Example for Free

Sociology Asian Family Essay Myths about the Family Ever since the 1950s to this day, common discourse regarding the family, especially in the United States, has been based on Talcott Parsons’ (Parsons Bales, 1955) functionalism views. According to Parsons, the contemporary family form is the nuclear family composed of a breadwinner husband and a homemaker wife with their children. This particular family form emerged as a result of modernization and industrialization and displaced the extended family. This contemporary nuclear family is unctional in that the breadwinner provides for the instrumental needs of the family unit (food and shelter as well as other material needs) whereas the housewife provides for the expressive needs of the family unit (affective and emotional needs as well as socialization). As long as individuals perform their instrumental or expressive roles, the family is a functional unit that contributes to the stability of society as a whole. This gendered division of labor is therefore viewed as essential for the harmonious and orderly functioning of society. This view of the family is also called the male breadwinner model. This theoretical view became the dominant way of examining the family and family life and any deviation from the male breadwinner model is usually labeled a dysfunctional deviation. This is especially the case in the United States where Talcott Parsons’ brand of functionalism dominated social research until the 1960s. Social policies regarding the family are still designed with an eye to what is now considered the â€Å"traditional family,† such as policies encouraging single mothers to marry in order to get out of poverty through the re-creation of an intact nuclear family. Moreover, this model was not only generalized in the United States, it became the prism through which families around the world were seen as well. This view was especially promoted by William Goode (1963). In line with modernization theory, Goode postulated that as countries develop, extended families would be discarded to be replaced by the functional nuclear family, essential to modern society. The major problem with these functionalist views is that they are ideologies rather than derived from observable realities. The so-called traditional family, defined as the male breadwinner model, was an exceptional occurrence in the Western world after the Second World War, and it lasted only a few decades. In this sense, it is a socially invented tradition. Moreover, one of the main functions of ideologies is to maintain the status quo, thereby preserving privileges and maintaining oppressive social mechanisms. In this case, of course, the functional ideal is based on relegating women to the domestic sphere while proclaiming at the same time that expressive roles come more naturally to women and instrument roles more naturally to men. We have already examined how gender roles are socially constructed in our chapter on gender stratification. Also, the male breadwinner model of the family was only available to certain social classes (upper middle and above) as well as to the dominant racial group (whites). Finally, this ideological view of the family ignores cultural variations in family structures as well as the impact of changing socio-economic structures. This is what we turn to now. Family Systems Further evidence of the misleading and ideological nature of the functionalist the breadwinner model of the family is revealed by the variations in family structures across the globe. Using worldwide data, sociologist Goran Therborn (2004) identifies seven family systems, each with their specific regional social and cultural characteristics. According to Therborn, these different family systems do not have dynamics of their own but change based on external factors, such as modernization and globalization. Their inherent characteristics then make them more receptive or resistant to social change. * Sub-Saharan Africa Sub-Saharan Africa (map source) comprises all the countries south of the Sahara desert and that are not considered part of North Africa. As previously mentioned, European colonization had a strong impact of African family structures. Nevertheless, the African family was always strongly based on kinship ties. Depending on the regions, the family structure may patrilineal or matrilineal but in any cases, male relatives exercise authority. According to Therborn (2004), a specific African norm is that of substitutability: in the context of mass polygyny, if a wife does not bear heirs or simply becomes undesirable to the lineage, she can be easily replaced or substituted by the husband taking another wife. Similarly, if a husband dies, he can be replaced by his brother. Another norm that involves fluidity in kinship structure is the mass practice of fostering, lending and borrowing children among kin when necessity demands it. This practice also underlines the idea that individuals belong to a wide kinship network and not a narrow-based family structure. * East Asia The East Asian family system (map source) includes Mongolia, China and Japan. The Chinese society is still dominated by Confucian beliefs. Such beliefs involve a concern for social order and stability through the subordination of individual wishes to collective and familial interests. Central to the Confucian view is the notion of filial piety, that is, the respect for elders as pillars of childrearing. In other words, the typical Chinese family is a strongly patriarchal and hierarchical arrangement based on the three rules of obedience: a daughter obeys her father, a married woman her husband, and a widow her son (Chen and He, 2005). As part of the collective outlook based on Confucianism, there are still a considerable number of households comprising three generations based on patrilineality (parents of the husband, husband and wife, and usually, one child). There is a strong emphasis on family interdependence which maintains the divorce rate at a low level. These traditional patterns are mixed, and sometimes conflict, with the Communist regime’s law mandating equality between men and women as well as with the rapid urbanization and modernization of the Chinese society and the import of western influence on intimate relationships. South Asia The South Asian family pattern (map source) – geographically including countries such as India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Burma – involves high fertility as well as extended family networks as well as strong religious influence (Laungani, 2005). Although not all family members live under the same roof, the Indian family system is extended in the sense that most social relationships and decisions take place within the network of relatives in the context of mostly Hindu religious norms. For instance, in India, the sacred nature of marriage creates a low divorce rate based on the economic and financial dependence of women as well as the strong social stigma associated with divorce, especially for women. The Indian family system is therefore strongly patriarchal supported by strong social norms that may cover up dreadful domestic situations. The Indian family is strictly hierarchical along age and gender lines. The caste system is still pervasive so that endogamy is still the norm, especially in rural areas (over 70% of Indians still live in villages). In order to preserve such endogamy, arranged marriages are still practiced whereby marriages are negotiated between the parents of the potential husband and wife. As with other family systems, the impact of globalization and the massive urbanization has strongly impacted the traditional South Asian system. * West Asia / North Africa The West Asia – North Africa system (map source) covers countries such as Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia and Egypt in Africa, as well as the Middle East in Asia. This is the area commonly called the Muslim world because this is where Islam seems to exercise the most influence. In this system as well, collective family interests take precedence over personal preferences. Moreover, the concept of family honor is particularly strong. The behavior of each individual in a family reflects on the family honor and its standing in the community. It is in this family system that we find the practice of honor killing: the murder of female family members who are seen as having shamed the family and tarnished its honor, by being raped for instance or by not conforming to the dictates of family, tradition or religion. The fact that the victims of honor killings are women is another indicator of the extreme patriarchal nature of this family system which is centered on the strict control over the sexuality of women. This control can take the form of body cover, such as veiling, or of seclusion, whereby women are not allowed to interact with other men except under very restrictive conditions. This system also emphasizes high fertility with a strong preference for boys, especially in rural areas. The value of a woman is often based on her virginity prior to marriage and her fertility once married. Southeast Asia The Southeast Asian system (map source) – which includes countries such as the Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, Laos, and Malaysia – enjoys religious diversity that comprises Muslim and Confucian populations whose marital and sexual norms have been relaxed under Buddhist influence and Malay customs (Therborn, 2004). For instance, in parts of Indonesia, Muslims do not follow the usual patriarchal family patterns. On the contrary, they observe matrilinearity. However, the great ethnic diversity of the Indonesian population generates some degree of extended family-enforced endogamy. Decisions on who can marry whom are made collectively (Sarwono, 2005). Similarly, Indonesia has a strong family planning program that emphasizes smaller families and the health of women through education and improvements in quality of life thanks to reproductive health clinics. In this sense, the status of Indonesian women is very advanced compared to other non-western family systems even though Indonesia is a largely Muslim country. * Creole America The Creole American system originated in the European colonization of the Americas and the Caribbean (which includes countries such as Antigua, Barbados, Jamaica, and Trinidad and Tobaggo) and the development of the plantation economy largely based on slavery. This estate system of stratification involved a white European dominant culture with a patriarchal family system alongside black African, mulatto, and mestizo family patterns. The Creole family pattern is present throughout the Americas, including African American ghettos in the United States. According to Jaipaul Roopnarine et al. (2005), the Creole system in the  Caribbean is characterized by a large number of nonmarital unions where fathers and husbands are largely absent and women assume the most responsibility in childrearing. Such marital patterns come from the colonial economic system whereby African Caribbean men were forced to leave their families to work in mines or plantations. A value system developed whereby African masculinity was based on successive but temporary sexual relationships and motherhood became the utmost form of femininity. When men and women live together, it is usually in cohabiting or common law relationships that reproduce the traditional patriarchal division of labor. This family system is also characterized by child-shifting, that is, the passing of children to other relatives or acquaintances if the parents find themselves unable to take care of them. As a result, multiple women are involved in childhood socialization. * European And New World Settlements The Western European system and its New World Settlements (such as the United States and Canada, as well as some parts of Central and South America) has always been the least patriarchal of all family systems. Apart from the European monarchies and nobility where marriage was strictly family-controlled with limited individual choice, this system has been based on marriage by consent, supported by the Catholic Church (family pressure was not absent, to be sure, but it was not enshrined into the law). Neolocal pattern has prevented the practice of child marriage: newlyweds were expected to create their own household, something that required financial means. As a result, people tended to marry later and to decide on their own fertility within monogamous arrangements. The Western system is also the one characterized by dramatic changes over the past centuries, changes that are still going on today and define the contemporary supposed marriage and family â€Å"crisis. † Before industrialization, as in other parts of the world, marriage and family formation patterns were patriarchal and fulfilled economic (production) and political (alliance making) functions. With industrialization, families were stripped of these functions taken over by the market and the state. What were left to the families were emotional and social functions. This became known as the love-based male breadwinner model that persisted until the late 1960s. Since then, cultural and economic factors, such as increased women’s independence and entry into the workforce have shattered that model to replace it with a more egalitarian one, with a progressive acceptance of different family forms.

Jurassic Park :: essays research papers

The Question of Control as Presented in Jurassic Park According to Arnold Pacey How could one describe the relationship between humans and nature? Perhaps it is one of control, a constant struggle between the power of the elements and the sophistication of human mechanization. Could it be one of symbiosis, where man and nature coexist in relative peace? Are we, as a species, simply a part of nature’s constantly changing realm? This issue is one that philosophers have debated for centuries. Where does mankind fit into the vast network of interacting environments and beings called nature? From the beginning of time, we have attempted to set ourselves apart from the rest of Earth’s creatures. Given the ability to reason, and to feel, and most importantly, to choose, we find ourselves with "the impulse to master and manipulate elemental force" (Pacey 86). We must fight, we must advance, and we must control all these elements of the natural world. But just how much of that world do we control? Surely people attempt and perceive control over nature, but do they succeed? The question of control, over nature in specific, is one of the prevalent themes that runs through Michael Crichton’s Jurassic Park. This novel is set on a small island off the coast of Costa Rica called Isla Nubar. On this island, construction of a new, virtuostic, state of the art park is almost complete, when a gathered team of paleontologists, businessmen, and a mathematician arrive to approve of the park opening. All seems well until the "experts" lose control of the park, leaving the main attractions, genetically engineered dinosaurs, free to roam and hunt. This loss of control further contributes to the downward spiral the park experiences, resulting in numerous deaths. How, one might ask, could a team of technicians and experts let something like this happen? The answer is simple. They over-estimated their perceived sense of control over one of the world’s most unpredictable forces†¦ nature. The theme of man’s perceived control over nature is one that Crichton has masterfully incorporated into his novel. The actions of the park experts present to the reader the false idea "that the proper role of man is mastery over nature" (Pacey 65). Mankind has always attempted to achieve this mastery, and the construction of Jurassic Park is a perfect example. Crichton uses the character of Ian Malcolm to constantly present this theme.

American Identity Prior to the Revolutionary War

Early American Identity Robert Zimmermann Madrigal During the time prior to the revolutionary war, there was a mixed sense of identity within the colonies. Some of the colonists saw themselves as English citizens, while others saw themselves as Americans and wanted a free, self governed nation. The first actuall sign of American identity was in 1754 when Benjamin Franklin proposed the Albany plan, as represented in Doc. A. Even though his proposition was denied it still showed that people were starting to take the idea of being â€Å"American† into account. In Document B. Edmund Burke shows his resentment of how American is being governed. Is there a single trait of resemblance between those few towns, and a great and growing people spread over a vast quarter of the globe, separated from us by a mighty ocean. † He says that he doesn't believe that the colonies should be ruled by a nation that is so different and so far away. â€Å"The eternal barriers of nature forbid t hat the colonies should be blended or coalesce into the mass†¦ of this Kingdom. † He again states that the colonies should not be ruled by Great Britain. After the French and Indian war England was in a great amount of debt, so they started to impose taxes of the colonies.The people living in the colonies had lived in the colonies their whole lives and had never been taxed by the government before, so they were very unhappy about them. The people of the colonies protested against all of the acts that the British government had set. From the years of 1763 to 1774 the British government proposed a series of acts that imposed taxes and regulations on the people of the colonies. The proclamation of 1763 being the first of them, prevented the colonists from moving into territory past the Appalachien mountains. This was the begining of an era of protest and unhappiness. In Document C.Richard Henry Lee talks about how the colonies are all working together to fight for their libe rties against â€Å"every power on Earth that may attempt to take them away†. In Document D. The Declaration for the causes of taking up arms says â€Å"We will, in defiance of every hazard, with unabating firmness and perserverance, employ for the preservation of our liberties; being with one mind resolved to die free men, rather than live like slaves. This is saying that they wanted their freedom from oppression. In 1774 The British government issued a series of laws that later came to be known as the â€Å"Intoerable Acts†.These most impacting thing these acts did was closing the port of Boston. This only deepened colonial hostility. The other colonies provided food and money to Massachusets. Document G. is a list of the vast amount of provisions provided to the Boston relief effort. In Document H. Hector Crevecoeur reffers to America as a melting pot, where the ancestors of people are forgoten and they become new men and women. All of these documents provide the f acts needed to infer that there was a great sense of American Identity in the Americas prior the the Revolution.

Cultures of the new world Essay

When the New World was discovered, Native American peoples had spread throughout North and South America. Often they were hunter/gatherers, but they had established various civilizations. The Europeans considered themselves far superior to these natives, and European arrival invariably led to native peoples being subjected to European rule. The Europeans brought superior weapons such as fire-arms, and diseases, which took an appalling toll on native peoples. Native peoples were often unable to assimilate themselves to European culture, and fell into ongoing conflict with the Europeans, resulting in the decimation of native tribes or their relegation to lands beyond a widening sphere of European control. Native Americans’ most lasting contributions were two food crops that reshaped of European farming: corn and potatoes. At the time they settled the New World, Europeans were feeling the effects of the Renaissance and the Reformation. Spain had emerged from centuries of division to become a united country. Portugal was trying to emerge as a sea power and a mercantile power, taking advantage of the slave trade. England was breaking free of continental control and experiencing the remarkable flowering of the Tudor-Stuart period. Open realizing the vast extent of the New World, the Europeans rushed to establish colonial settlements. These colonies reflected the cultures from which they were sent. The Portugese colonies in Brazil were marked by the depredations of slavery. Spanish colonies reveled in the wealth they found in many parts of the New World. English colonists carried their traditions of self-government and sturdy habits to their new colonies. The result has been the Europeanization of the New World. From Mexico south, the region is Latin America, reflecting the pervasive influence of Spanish and Portugese control throughout central and South America. The United States and Canada remain more English in their orientation, and America has become the ultimate cultural imperialists. Although the Europeans discovered the New World while trying to reach Asia, Asia remained largely unaffected by the discovery and settlement of the New World. The Chinese had apparently sailed to the Americas several centuries earlier, but had found nothing that they felt warranted continued contact. The Japanese were about to enter their two-centuries-long isolation. The various peoples of southeast Asia, whose spices had been one of the key goals of the Europeans, remained oblivious to what went on in the New World. It would be the mid-nineteenth century before large scale emigration to the Americas would increase contact, and this would be followed by American laws excluding Asians. Because of the very limited contact that the Asians had with the Americas during the period of European exploration and settlement, Asia had very little direct influence on the Americas. Its indirect influence shows in the fact that the native Americans were called as Columbus dubbed them, Indians. At the time Europeans were settling the New World, sub-Saharan Africa was divided into various kingdoms. Wars among these were common, as was the practice of seizing enemy tribal peoples and selling them as slavery. As Europeans found that Native Americans did not survive well in slavery, they quickly found advantages to importing slaves from Africa, and a flourishing trade in humans began which would last until the nineteenth century. Slaves in America often worked long hours under conditions in which death was commonplace, prompting a need for the continual importation of more slaves. The result of this importation has been the profound legacy of racism that continues to wrack communities from the United States throughout Latin America. SOURCE: â€Å"The Age of Exploration. † (Undated). HistoryTeacher. net. Retrieved January 31, 2007, from . Internet.

Age of Acquisition The WritePass Journal

Age of Acquisition Abstract Age of Acquisition : 209) the two bases of familiarity, novelty and preference elicit varied reaction across different categories of objects. The participants rated their preference based on the age of the acquired face and familiarity of the face. In a given sub-block one picture was shown in each of the trials thus became familiar. The other image was new in each of the trials so it was novel. The pictures of the same personality at different ages were also shown in a novel manner. The experiment tested three different types of pictures: familiar faces, early versus late acquired faces and a control tool. The respondents preferred repeated faces in the face stimuli as the experiment progressed. For the personality scenes, the new faces became preferred against the old faces. The control tool had no strong preference as bias was universal in either direction. In the study by Moore et al. (2004: 423), the findings showed that familiarity and novelty preference between the personality faces replicated across various conditions as opposed to this study which had inconsistent results especially on the novel preference. This implies that repeated stimulus ought to have increased rather than decreased. The study thus cannot explain the cause of the inconsistency based on the type of stimulus as there is existence of a wide range of exposure on varied stimulus like words and photographs. The effects of exposure on the desired preference may be altered by performing a desired judgment on every presentation (Moore and Valentine 1998: 490). Moore et al (2004: 422) states that explicit evaluation is possible in the performed task in the trial which may lead to a stronger habituation as compared to repeated stimuli which leads to novelty preference for the early acquired faces of the personalities. This therefore streams the hypothesis for the reaction time that familiarity preferences rely on automatic processing while novelty preferences demand a controlled cognitive processing (Morrison and Ellis 2000: 172). The present study was controlled by one major hypothesis: different kinds of tasks may lead to varied types of memory processing which can cause different effects on familiarity and novelty preferences. The present study relied on familiarity and novelty as its dependent variable while geometric pictures were used as the control tool in the study. The main objectiv e of the present study was to examine the reaction time to face processing as a familiarity decision (Smith et al. 2012: 205). The independent variable of the study was to examine the extent at which segregation for novel and familiar faces can be formed due to exposure. Methods Participants 115 adults, who included both the graduates and undergraduate students, from London South Bank University took part in the study. All the respondents were not acquainted with knowledge about the purpose of this study. Out of 115 participants only 114 respondents turned up for the study. The study had 66.7% female respondents with 33.3% male. The participants had mean age error of .807 with a Standard Deviation of 8.658. The study comprised both UK and International students. The London South Bank University committee for protecting human subjects confirmed and approved this experiment. Later, all the participants were given an informed consent. Stimuli The present AoA study used IBM Compatible computers using Superlabs (Cedius Corporation) software which helped in storing the raw data (Morrison and Ellis 2000: 169). The experiment opted to incorporate a 20-inch LaCie monitor was controlled by a Dell computer. The experiment used a similar attractiveness pre-testing data and visual stimuli like that used by Moore et al. (2004: 431). The experiment used three categories of pictures: 10 early-acquired famous people pictures, 10 late-acquired famous people pictures and 20 unfamiliar pictures like geometric figures. Geometric elicit little choice bias thus was preferred in this experiment as a control tool. The faces of the personalities were generated by use of FaceGen into four major sub-categories based on the race (Barry and Johnston 2006: 90). The software categorized the faces into African, European, Asian and Indian with two distinct gender relations that is; male and female and further into young and old categories. The pictures of the personalities were black and white photos collected from various online sources. The pictures were divided into eight subcategories: footballers, politicians, show biz, comedians, religious leaders, celebrities, actors and actress and journalists. MathWorks Inc., a Matlab program generated the Geometric figures into Fourier descriptors which came up with four categories with properties such as simple versus complex and symmetry versus asymmetry (Morrison and Ellis 2000: 178). The AoA experiment categorized the geometric figures into eight distinct categories. In each of the subcategory of images, there were 20 pictures and the picture that had the median attractiveness rating was chosen as the ‘old’ picture. The experiment used this scheme to avoid introducing unwanted bias in the familiar or novel stimuli. Design The present AoA study sought a within-subject design. This is due to the fact that similar subjects, such as early-acquired and late acquired pictures, were used. Furthermore, the experiment comprised two major phases: a preference judgment phase and an experienced phase. The preference judgment phase consisted of 10 trials in each category and 20 trials for all the categories. Each of the preference judgment had eight subcategories while the experience phase had 20 trials with eight subcategories (Moore et al 2004: 427). The categories of pictures were run in each of the phases and blocks were assigned to each participant in the experiment. 8 subcategories were later run in each of the given blocks. Out of the 20 available subcategories of the faces assigned to each of the participants, 10 faces emerged from the participant’s race. All 8 subcategories were used in the geometric figures. In the blocks, the order of each subcategory was randomized. Procedure The participants viewed the pictures in the experience phase with an unlimited and self-paced viewing time frame for each of the trials. The participants were encouraged to take glances on each of the shown pictures. The participants were encouraged to be serious to the given stimuli as they were provided with a questionnaire which had Yes/No answer. However, the participants were not aware of the judgment phase until after the experiment. The participants were requested to make a relative judgment on the given pairs of pictures. The experiment used a 7-point scale where respondents were asked made their verdict with a rating of 1-3 on the left and a rating of -1 to -3 on the right. Zero point indicated no response on the given set of picture (Barry and Johnston 2006: 203). The participants were shown pictures sized 256Ãâ€"256 randomly. Two sets of pictures, that is old versus new were shown side by side. The pictures were randomly shown on either left or right in a random manner. The central point of each picture was located at 10 ° of the given visual angle. Face pictures were located at 12 ° Ãâ€" 12 ° with geometry pictures shown at 17 ° Ãâ€" 12 °. Later a response indicator frame of 36 °Ãƒâ€" 1.5 ° was located below the central point at 12.7 ° in the response phase. The movement of the indicator from 1-3 in either direction indicated a relative preference rating (Moore and Valentine 1998: 507). Results The present study recorded a positive preference rating; the repeated ‘old’ picture was preferred as than the repeated ‘new’ picture. We analyzed the rating of the first preference rating of the sub-blocks. The mean Reaction Time to the early-acquired faces was 887.13 and recorded a Standard Deviation (SD) of 244.691. The present study recorded a mean Reaction Time (RT) to the late-acquired celebrities of 963.28 and a Standard Deviation of 283.463. More so, the present study recorded a mean RT to unfamiliar faces of 1021.18 and SD of 276.448. A repeated mean measure of the faces against the image category revealed a huge significant difference among the three image categories. To evaluate if there was a significant choice bias towards the novel or familiar pictures, we tested the sign test for the two entries. The results indicated a negative z-score for the mean RT to late-acquired faces against the mean RT to early-acquired faces of -5.782. The sign test f or the two categories indicated a significant value of .000. The results indicated that familiar celebrities’ faces were significantly preferred with mean RT to late-acquired faces showing a negative difference of 26 which implies that mean RT to late-acquired faces is less than the mean RT to early acquired faces. The present study indicated zero frequency between the mean RT to late-acquired faces and the mean RT to early-acquired faces. Discussion The above results showed preference for the familiar celebrities faces with no preference bias towards novelty or familiarity. There was no preference over control tool (geometric figures) after the 20 repetitions to each ‘old’ picture. Recent studies indicate that natural/control tool is inconsistent with exposure effect where repeated pictures were preferred (Moore and Valentine 1998: 510). The present study sought to explain why there was no exposure effect for the control tool/geometric figures. This can arise due to the way the stimuli were presented. The present study presented the images side-by-side while Barry Johnston (2006: 80) state that in the mere exposure effect, one picture is presented at a time. In a study by Smith et al (2012: 209), there was no novelty preference bias in the control tool and development of a novelty preference for the control tool requires a detailed performance of preference judgment during exposure. The present study omitted the preference task but instead used 20 trials which failed to elicit a significant preference bias (Morrison and Ellis 2000: 178). The results in the present study suggested that familiarity preference can be induced by passive perceptual exposure but for novelty preference to occur there must be some certain level of selection or processing. This implies that task-context of different experience has varied preferences which ought to be accounted for to help understand other novelty and familiarity mechanisms. From the present study, it is evident that differences between novelty preference for control tool and familiarity preference may be avoided through omitting the object categories and the task-context experience (Morrison and Ellis 2000: 171). Similar study with same variables ought to be carried out in the presence of financial or commercial relationship and measure its effect on the results. Bibliography Barry, C. and Johnston, R. A. (2006).Age of Acquisition Effects in Word and Object Processing. Hove, East Sussex: Psychology Press. Moore, V. and Valentine, T. (1998). The Effect of Age of Acquisition on Speed and Accuracy of Naming Famous Faces. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 51A (3), 485-513. Moore, V., Smith-Spark, J. H. and Valentine, T. (2004). The Effects of Age of Acquisition on   Ã‚  Object Perception. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 16(3), 417-439. Morrison, C. M. and Ellis, A. W. (2000). Real Age of Acquisition Effects in Word Naming and Lexical Decision. British Journal of Psychology, 91, 167-180. Smith-Spark, J. H., Moore, V. and Valentine, T. (2012). Long-Term Age of Acquisition Effects in Famous Name Processing. ActaPsychologica, 139, 202-211. Smith-Spark, J. H., Moore, V., Valentine, T. and Sherman, S. M. (2006). Stimulus Generation, Ratings, Phoneme Counts, and Group Classifications for 696 Famous People by British Adults Aged over 40 Years. Behavior Research Methods, 38(4), 590-597.

Overview of Viking Trading and Exchange Networks

Overview of Viking Trading and Exchange Networks The Viking trade network included trading relationships into Europe, Charlemagnes Holy Roman Empire, into Asia, and the Islamic Abbasid empire. This is evidenced by the identification of items such as coins from North Africa recovered from a site in central Sweden and Scandinavian brooches from sites east of the Ural Mountains. Trade was a vital feature of the Norse Atlantic communities throughout their history and a way for the colonies to support their use of landnam, a sometime unreliable farming technique for environments the Norse didnt quite understand. Documentary evidence indicates that there were several groups of specific people who traveled between the Viking trading centers and other centers throughout Europe, as envoys, merchants or missionaries. Some travelers, such as the Carolingian missionary bishop Anskar (801-865) left extensive reports of their travels, giving us great insight to traders and their clients. Viking Trade Commodities The Norse traded commodities included slaves, but also coins, ceramics, and materials from specialized crafts such as copper-alloy casting and glass-working (beads and vessels both). The access to some commodities could make or break a colony: Greenlands Norse relied on trade in walrus and narwhal ivory and polar bear skins to support their ultimately failing farming strategies. Metallurgical analysis at Hrisbru in Iceland indicates that the elite Norse traded in bronze objects and raw material from the tin-rich regions in Britain. Significant trade in dried fish emerged near the end of the 10th century AD in Norway. There, cod played a significant role in Viking trade, when commercial fishing and sophisticated drying techniques allowed them to expand the market throughout Europe. Trade Centers In the Viking homeland, major trading centers included Ribe, Kaupang, Birka, Ahus, Truso, Grop Stromkendorf, and Hedeby. Goods were brought to these centers and then dispersed into the Viking society. Many of these site assemblages include an abundance of a soft yellow earthenware called Badorf-ware, produced in the Rhineland; Sindbà ¦k has argued that these items, rarely found on non-trading communities, were used as containers to bring goods to places, rather than as trade items. In 2013, Grupe et al. conducted stable isotope analysis of skeletal material at the Viking trade center of Haithabu (later Schleswig) in Denmark. They found that the diet of the individuals expressed in the human bones reflected the relative significance of trade over time. Members of the earlier community showed a predominance of freshwater fish (cod imported from the North Atlantic) in their diet, while later residents shifted to a diet of terrestrial domestic animals (local farming). Norse-Inuit Trade Theres some evidence in the Viking Sagas that trade played a role in the North American contact between the Norse and the Inuit occupants. Also, Norse symbolic and utilitarian objects are found at Inuit sites and similar Inuit objects in Norse sites. There are fewer Inuit objects in Norse sites, a fact which may be because the trade goods were organic, or that the Norse exported some Inuit prestige items into the wider European trade network. Evidence at the site of Sandhavn in Greenland seems to suggest that the quite rare co-existence of Inuit and Norse there was a result of the opportunity to trade with one another. Ancient DNA evidence from the Farm Beneath the Sand (GUS) site, also in Greenland, however, finds no support for the trade of bison robes, posited earlier from morphological examination. Viking and Islamic Trade Connections In a 1989 study of formal weights discovered at the Viking site of Paviken in Gotland near Vastergarn, Sweden, Erik Sperber reported three main types of trading weights in use: Ball-shaped weights of ironclad with a layer of bronze or solid bronze; these vary between 4 and 200 gmCubo-octaedric weights of lead bronze, tin bronze or brass; up to 4.2 gramsLeaden weights of different shapes and sizes Sperber believes at least some of these weights conform to the Islamic system of the Ummayyad dynasty leader Abd al Malik. The system, established in 696/697, is based on the dirhem of 2.83 grams and the mitqa of 2.245 grams. Given the breadth of Viking trade, it is likely that the Vikings and their partners may have utilized several trade systems. Sources: This glossary entry is a part of the About.com Guide to the Viking Age and part of the Dictionary of Archaeology.Barrett J, Johnstone C, Harland J, Van Neer W, Ervynck A, Makowiecki D, Heinrich D, Hufthammer AK, Bà ¸dker Enghoff I, Amundsen C et al. 2008. Detecting the medieval cod trade: a new method and first results. Journal of Archaeological Science 35(4):850-861.Dugmore AJ, McGovern TH, Và ©steinsson O, Arneborg J, Streeter R, and Keller C. 2012. Cultural adaptation, compounding vulnerabilities and conjunctures in Norse Greenland. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 109(10):3658-3663Golding KA, Simpson IA, Schofield JE, and Edwards KJ. 2011. Norse-Inuit interaction and landscape change in southern Greenland? A geochronological, Pedological, and Palynological investigation. Geoarchaeology 26(3):315-345.Grupe G, von Carnap-Bornheim C, and Becker C. 2013. Rise and Fall of a Medieval Trade Centre: Economic Change from Viking Haithabu to Medieval Schleswig Revealed by S table Isotope Analysis. European Journal of Archaeology 16(1):137-166. Sindbà ¦k SM. 2007. Networks and nodal points: the emergence of towns in early Viking Age Scandinavia. Antiquity 81:119-132.Sindbà ¦k SM. 2007. The Small World of the Vikings: Networks in Early Medieval Communication and Exchange. Norwegian Archaeological Review 40(1):59-74.Sinding M-HS, Arneborg J, Nyegaard G, and Gilbert MTP. 2015. Ancient DNA unravels the truth behind the controversial GUS Greenlandic Norse fur samples: the bison was a horse, and the muskox and bears were goats. Journal of Archaeological Science 53:297-303.Sperber E. 1989. The weights found at the Viking Age site of Paviken, a metrological study. Fornvannem 84:129-134.Wrmlnder SKTS, Zori D, Byock J, and Scott DA. 2010. Metallurgical findings from a Viking Age chieftain’s farm in Iceland. Journal of Archaeological Science 37(9):2284-2290.

Bill of Rights Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Bill of Rights Paper - Essay Example Constitution or more commonly the "Bill of Rights" should always be applied by government agencies that either dispense justice or ensure the security of the nation. The first amendment states that a person's beliefs and religion are to be respected. The Bill of Rights specifically states that there would be no law against the practice of any particular religious belief, custom as well as the establishment of any religious order. The Bill of rights also specifically states that any person is entitled to freedom of speech as well as the right to assemble and ask for petitions from the Government for any grievances made ("The US Constitution Online", 2006). This amendment applies as long as the person is of legal age and he or she does not harm any other person. The U.S. government treats the first amendment as one of the most important amendments made as it is believed by the administration that this will set an example to other countries in the provision of freedom and liberty regarding a person's belief and customs. ("National Security", 2006). This amendment treats religion as a free choice granting a person the freedom to join and revere a re ligious group or not. With this, the government's plans to line in religious practice alongside peace and justice will lead the way to a more harmonious existence between the government and the populace. There are a multitude of religions that are established in the United States and U.S. citizens enjoy much freedom to choose their religion given that they are already of legal age. They may also choose not to join any religious group or order. In universities and other institutions, religion is not compulsory for students and employees thus freeing people from the pressures of religion on what they can and cannot do in their lives. The latest current U.S. government administration emphasized the creation of laws that are centered for the enrichment of personal honor and the protection of human rights which includes freedom of the press, freedom to choose religions, exercise of conscience and religious assembly and association (National Security Strategy", 2006). The fourth amendment The privacy of a person is the main focus of the fourth amendment of the Bill of Rights. In this section of the Bill of Rights, people have the right to secure anything (papers, personal effects and other personal property) in their private residences. Their properties are thus protected under law against any unauthorized searches and seizures. Search warrants are only issued when violations are made especially regarding the possession of illegal goods and substances. Seizure of illegal goods and substances will only commence when a sworn affidavit is made against the owners but until it has been proven, any residence could be monitored in accordance with the law. ("The US Constitution Online", 2006). Privacy has always been regarded as a major issue not only by the Law but by the citizens themselves. Every person is entitled to his or her own privacy and to intrude or breach someone's privacy only entails trouble. Although this is the case most of the time, the government can somet imes break this law under dire circumstances especially when the whole country is